Chapter 1

Migration to the Americas

Early Americans
and the First
Europeans
The First Americans
When Christopher Columbus arrived
on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola
in October 1492, he believed he had
found a much sought-after trade
route to India and China.
Columbus mistakenly believed the people
he first laid eyes on were South Asian
Indians. In fact, they were members of the
Arawak tribe, a group that had populated

The Big Question

the Caribbean basin for hundreds of

What were some of the
similarities and differences
between the early indigenous
or Native American groups of
the Americas?

years. Because he thought he was in
India, Columbus named the people he
saw indios. The term Indian is the English
derivative of this word.

6

How People Came to America

Indigenous Society Before
European Contact

The long-held explanation of how
America’s indigenous peoples came

As many as eighty to one hundred million

to settle this part of the world is the

people lived in the Western Hemisphere

Beringian land bridge theory. This theory

by the time Italian explorer Christopher

proposes that Stone Age migrants

Columbus arrived. They occupied lands

from central Asia crossed a frozen land

throughout the North and South American

bridge from the Eastern Hemisphere.

continents. Their lands extended north

The land bridge had been formed by

to the Arctic—now Alaska and northern

the geological patterns of the era. It

Canada—south to the Andes Mountains

was located in the area now known as

of South America, and to all points in

the Bering Strait. This narrow body of

between. Big game hunting may have

water separates North America from

brought some to the land, but climate

Asia and borders Alaska on the west.

patterns and the locations they settled

Many centuries ago, this area was a land

in distinguished each group further. The
Inuit, in what is now Alaska, were seal

formation that people could cross on

hunters. Mound-building farmers lived

foot. It is believed that early migrants

in the Mississippi Valley. And Peru and

came here following the big game

Ecuador were home to highly structured

they hunted for food. In time, over the

agricultural societies. As populations grew,

course of hundreds of years, groups of

societies became more complex. We will

people with different languages and

now take a closer look at the different

different ways of life populated what is

indigenous groups that lived in South,

now North, Central, and South America.

Central, and North America.

More recently, scholars have proposed
that people first arrived in various ways,

Think Twice

including walking across frozen water,

Why might it be difficult to truly
understand how people originally
migrated to the Americas?

and by boat along the Pacific Coast.

7

Indigenous People of Central and South America
Three of the most highly established

The Inca were extraordinarily skilled in

and organized indigenous groups of

warfare compared to any group of their

the Western Hemisphere were the Inca,

time. However, the Inca’s skills were no

the Maya, and the Aztec. The Inca lived

match for Spanish explorers who invaded

in what is now the country of Peru, as

their territory in the 1500s. Known as

well as in other areas along the western

conquistadors, these warrior-explorers

coast of South America. They built one

used force against indigenous groups.

of the most extensive empires the world

The warriors assaulted Inca homelands in

had ever known. In fact, many of their

search of gold and silver.

roads, walls, and irrigation works are still

One of these conquistadors was Francisco

in use today. The masonry, metalwork,

Pizzaro. Intrigued by the stories of

and weaving performed by expert Inca

the wealth of the Inca empire, Pizzaro

artisans rivaled anything that could be

was determined to seize some of this

found in Europe at the time.

wealth for himself. So he set out on an

Find Out the Facts

expedition. Pizzaro lured the last of

Research the skills practiced by
Inca, Maya, and Aztec artisans.

invitation to dinner. When Atahualpa

the Inca emperors, Atahualpa, with an
arrived, he received no fine meal. Instead,

NORTH AMERICA

Pizzaro’s men captured Atahualpa and
eventually murdered him. The loss of
their emperor discouraged the Incas.

The Maya
The Aztec

Atlantic Ocean

They struggled to fight back. Although

CENTRAL
AMERICA

they vastly outnumbered the invading
Spanish, their empire quickly collapsed

SOUTH AMERICA

in the face of European weaponry.

Pacific Ocean

Find Out the Facts
Find out more about the last Inca
emperor, Atahualpa.

N
W

E

The Inca

S

Locations of the Maya, Aztec, and Inca

8

The Maya used complex math to create a highly accurate calendar.

Unlike the Inca, the causes of the Maya
empire’s decline are less certain. Some
historians believe that environmental
changes may have been to blame.
An extended drought deprived this
agriculturally based society of muchneeded rainwater to grow its crops.
Other historians believe that constant
warfare among rival city-states within the
empire weakened its government from
within and led to its collapse. Still other
historians believe that overpopulation
and a fragile environment that could not
grow enough food to feed everyone was
the cause of the decline. It’s possible it
was a combination of all three factors.
However the decline came about, and
by the time Spanish invaders arrived in
the area in the mid-1500s, many of the
great cities that had once existed were
lost in the thick vegetation of the Central
American rainforest.

The Maya occupied what is now southern
Mexico, Honduras, and northern
Guatemala. The most dominant society
of its region and era, the Maya developed
the most sophisticated system of written
language anywhere in precolonial
America. The Maya constructed
impressive pyramids, which they used
as temples where religious rites were
carried out. A deeply religious people,
the Maya were guided by their spiritual
beliefs. Over time, they developed
complex mathematical concepts. The
Maya used these concepts to create an
astronomically accurate calendar. They
were also one of a small number of early
societies to invent and use the number
zero. (Historians have found evidence
that the concept of zero spread in other
cultures from ancient Mesopotamia to
India, and then to China.)

9

The Aztec lived to the north of the Maya
empire. Their grand capital city was called
Tenochtitlán. The Aztec controlled a vast
expanse of what is now north-central
Mexico. The Aztec engaged in agriculture
as their primary economic activity. They
also developed trading relationships with
groups such as the Ancestral Pueblo and
the Hopis of the American Southwest. By
the time of Spanish conquest in the mid1500s, the Aztec empire included five
hundred smaller tribal communities with
an estimated population between seven
and eight million people.
One of the most notable features of Aztec
culture was its use of human sacrifice

In 1519, Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlán.

in religious rituals. The Aztec built

There they were greeted by the last Aztec

magnificently constructed temples, similar

emperor, Montezuma, and members of

to those built by their Maya neighbors

his royal court. Cortés and his men were

to the south. Aztecs performed sacred

treated like gods. The Aztec compared

ceremonies they believed would be

their light skin to the light skin of their

acceptable to their two most important

feathered serpent god, Quetzalcoatl.

gods, Huitzilopochtli (the god of the sun

Just beforehand, Montezuma had sent

and the god of war) and Quetzalcoatl (the

out messengers to confirm rumors of

feathered serpent).

the Spanish arrival in the area. Their

Tribes who did not trade with the Aztec

messengers described the Spanish

messages frightened Montezuma. His

justifiably feared their formidable
neighbors. But the Aztec would meet their
match when in the fall of 1519, Hernan

weapons. One said, “A thing like a ball
of stone comes out of its entrails, it
comes out shooting sparks and raining

Cortés and his men arrived in Tenochtitlán. fire.” Montezuma’s messengers went on

10

defeated by the firepower of the Spanish.
Montezuma himself died at their hands.

Think Twice
What do you think Montezuma’s
messengers were describing?

Perhaps even more deadly than Cortés’s
armed invasions into Aztec territory were
European diseases such as smallpox,
measles, and mumps. Although these
diseases were common in Europe,
indigenous people lacked immunity or
resistance to them. One Catholic priest
observed the effect these diseases had
to inform him that those balls of stone

on the Aztecs: “They died in heaps . . . in

had a “pestilent odor, like that of rotten

many places, it happened that everyone

mud.” Montezuma grew more anxious

in the house died . . . as it became

when his messengers described what

impossible to bury them all because their

Cortés and his men looked
like. “Their bodies were
completely covered so
only their faces were seen
. . . their skin is white as
if made of lime.” Cortés

numbers were too great,

Vocabulary
pestilent, adj. infectious
or sickly
smallpox, n. a serious
disease that spreads from
person to person and
causes a fever and rash

had few men compared

sometimes they pulled their
houses down on top of
them so that their houses
became their tombs.”
Within one year of Cortés’s
arrival in Mexico, the Aztec

to the Aztec. But what Cortés and his

population decreased by forty percent

men lacked in numbers, they made up

from smallpox deaths alone.

for with advanced weapons. Like the
Incas of Peru, the Aztecs of Mexico were

11

The American Southwest
The American Southwest has unique
geographic features, with mesas, canyons,
and plateaus that stretch for miles. It has a
Traditional art showing the final battle at Tenochtitlán,
August 1521

dry, arid climate, which makes living there
challenging. Because of this, native farmers
spent thousands of years learning to
harness the power of the region’s precious

Indigenous Societies
in North America

rivers. Those who lived in this region
adopted diverse living practices that were
as varied as they were.

When it came to daily life for the

The Ancestral Pueblo occupied what is

indigenous peoples of North America,

known as the “Four Corners” area (the

their lifestyles and customs were greatly

place where the states of Utah, Colorado,

impacted by the environments they lived

New Mexico, and Arizona meet). They

in. Regional areas are characterized by

lived in dwellings they carved out of cliffs.

similar climate patterns, vegetation,

These structures could house between

and wildlife. Generally, indigenous tribes

eight hundred and one thousand people

of North America lived in one of four

at a time, so they looked somewhat like

geographic regions: the Southwest,

the apartment buildings we are used

the Southeast, the Northwest, and the

to today.

Northeast.

For hundreds of years, the Ancestral

Vocabulary

Pueblo lived as cliff dwellers in the

climate pattern, n. the type of weather
that occurs regularly in a place

American Southwest. But then suddenly

geographic region, n. a large area
whose geographic characteristics, such as
climate and physical features, set it apart
from other places

Scientists have several different theories.

they were gone. What happened?
One idea holds that the thin soils of
the region could no longer support the

12

volume of farming that was needed to

lived in promoted a sense of community

sustain life and keep it going. Prolonged

that helped them get along with their

periods without rain would have made

neighbors.

it even harder for plants to grow and for

The Navajo and other members of the

animals to survive. What is known for sure
is that something made the ancient Pueblo
peoples of this region leave their homes.

Apache Nation were among some of the
other groups that lived in the American
Southwest. Believed to have come from

Today, Pueblo people live in small groups

western Canada, the Navajo eventually

throughout the Southwest and trace their

settled in small villages across the

roots to the Ancestral Pueblo, the cliff

Southwest and became farmers, shepherds,

dwellers of long ago. The Pima and Zuni

and silversmiths. They often got into

are descendants of the ancient Pueblo.

conflicts with Pueblos, whose fields they

When the Spanish first encountered these

raided from time to time. In fact, the word

town dwellers, they called them Pueblos.

Navajo means “enemies of plowed fields,”

That’s because Pima and Zuni homes

likely another name given by Spanish

reminded the Spanish of a small town,

explorers who encountered them in the

called a pueblo in the Spanish language.

1500s. The Navajo call themselves Diné,

Pueblos believed the close quarters they

which means “the people.”

We may never know exactly why the Ancestral Pueblo left their cliff dwellings.

13

native language, the name Inuit means
“the people,” and this is the name they
used when referring to themselves. Just
as with other indigenous groups who
lived in other regions, the Inuit had to
learn to adapt to living in their extreme
environment. The Inuit had no access to
typical building materials such as wood or
sun-dried mud bricks. So the Inuit learned
how to make warm housing from snow
and ice in the winter (igloos) and from
stretched animal skins, driftwood, and
whalebone in the summer. Because they
lived in the very cold climate of the Arctic,
they needed warm, thick clothing, which
they made from seal, otter, and caribou
skin. They lined the coats they made from
these animal skins with the furs of polar
bears, rabbits, and foxes. One way in
which the Inuit secured food was through
ice fishing. Inuit fishermen bored holes in
the ice and caught fish in the icy waters
below. Upon catching the fish, they would
allow it to freeze in the icy air. When they
were ready to cook it, the fish tasted just
as fresh as the day that it was frozen. The
Inuit process of freezing their fish would
inspire future generations to preserve and

The American Northwest
Indigenous groups who lived in the
American Northwest lived in areas that
make up the modern states of Alaska,
Washington, Oregon, and northern
California. The people in this region
farmed. They also took advantage of their
natural surroundings to provide them
with food and the makings for shelter and
cultural artifacts. This meant that they
turned to the region’s abundant lakes,
rivers, and streams for fish and other
aquatic animals to
Vocabulary
eat. They used the
heavily forested
cultural artifact, n. an
object that reflects the
areas to construct
life, beliefs, and society
shelter, boats,
of a group of people
and religious
artifacts. Perhaps the two best known
tribes in this region were the Haida and
the Inuit. The Haida were known for the
totem poles they created. Totem poles are
wooden carvings that are decorated with
brightly colored likenesses of animals and
human figures. Totem poles were symbols
of a family’s power and rank. The more
elaborate the carvings were, the more
powerful the family.

prepare their food in much the same way.

Writers’ Corner

The Inuit were and are indigenous people
who occupied the Arctic regions of
Canada and the United States. In their own

14

Write a paragraph on the various
challenges faced by indigenous
people living in either a very dry
environment or a frozen one.

The Iroquois Confederacy, initially made
up of the Five Nations, lived on lands

The American Northeast

in what is now New York, Vermont,

The American Northeast expands from

representative leaders whose job

the north, bordering Canada, to east

was to discuss and ultimately vote on

of the Mississippi River, to the Atlantic

solutions to problems. But for a decision

Coast. The indigenous people of the

to pass, there had to be a unanimous

American Northeast had the best climate

vote. This judicial style of government

to achieve success in farming. They did

provided the ability to settle conflicts

not have to substantially improve their

between neighbors and to regulate

environments to farm successfully. The

commerce. Most of the nations who

people of this region are also known by

joined the confederacy, also known as

the general name, Eastern Woodlands

the Haudenosaunee Confederacy, lived in

Indians. One characteristic of these

what is now New York State. The nations

people is that they lived under complex

were the Mohawk, the Onondaga, the

systems of government. Their complex

Seneca, the Oneida, and the Cayuga.

and Connecticut. Each nation selected

government easily shatters stereotypes
that claim Native Americans were less

Vocabulary

organized and less sophisticated than

judicial, adj. having to do with
courts of law or decisions of right
and wrong

Europeans. One group with a particularly
sophisticated government was the

commerce, n. the buying and
selling of goods and services;
trade

Iroquois. Although they did not have a
written language, the Iroquois were a
remarkable group in terms of the form
of government they established. Their

Historical evidence suggests that the

approach to making laws and keeping

Iroquois and some of their neighbors,

the peace was so impressive that later,

such as the Narraganset, the Powhatan,

American colonists such as Benjamin

the Algonquin, the Delaware, and the

Franklin would look to the Iroquois for
inspiration when designing a government
for a brand-new nation.

Cree, functioned in democratic societies
where women were vital members of the

15

decision-making process. All adults—
men and women—had a voice in making

The Eastern Woodlands

decisions. The women were very skilled
farmers and produced much of the food
for the community.
The strength of the Haudenosaunee
Confederacy earned praise from
many Europeans and colonists. Some
confederacy ceremonies became famous
throughout North America. For example,
the confederacy’s council meetings,
where Haudenosaunee leaders discussed
common problems, were called to order
by the smoking of a pipe. The saying
“smoking the peace pipe” comes from
this tradition. Like “burying the hatchet,”
“smoking the peace pipe” has become
part of our everyday language. It means

By the time Columbus landed in the
Caribbean isles in 1492, many different
indigenous peoples were living in the
Eastern Woodlands of North America.
The Eastern Woodlands stretched from
Lake Superior to the Atlantic Coast. The
landscape of the Eastern Woodlands
was mostly forest. Most people lived
in clearings within forested areas near
creeks, rivers, lakes, or ponds. The forest
provided plenty of wood and forest
materials for building and for fuel, many
large and small animals and birds to
hunt, an almost year-round supply of fish,

sitting down and calmly talking over a

and plenty of roots, berries, and nuts to

problem to reach a fair solution.

collect. Besides all of the food that was
available just outside the door, the land

Think Twice
What natural advantage or
advantages did the indigenous
people of the Northeast have over
those people living in the American
Southwest?

could be cleared in order to plant crops.
The soil was rich, even though in some
areas the growing season was short.
Corn, beans, and squash were the main
crops. The Haudenosaunee called these
main crops “the three sisters.” All three
crops were planted together.
Corn seeds were planted in rows of little
hills, one step apart. Beans were planted

16

between the corn plants. The beans could
climb up the corn stalks as they grew
taller. Squash was grown in the low areas
between the hills. The broad leaves of
the squash plants provided shade to stop
weeds from growing. The squash leaves
also shaded the ground and kept it moist.
This early form of sustainable agriculture
would inspire farmers and gardeners
centuries later.
Indigenous people lived in communal,
small village settings. Around the Great
Lakes, people built wigwams. A wigwam
had a framework of poles pounded into
the ground in a circle. The poles were tied
together at the top to make a dome. Bark,
reeds, or mats were used for the walls. Fires
were built in the middle of the floor. Smoke
escaped through a hole at the top. The
Haudenosaunee lived in longhouses, which
were dwellings that were also built with
wooden poles. This type of house formed
a long rectangle with a door at each end,
and there were fire pits in the center of the
room. Smoke escaped through holes in
the roof. Longhouses were about twenty
feet wide. They could be long or short,
depending on how many families lived in
Corn, beans, and squash were the main crops grown
in the Eastern Woodlands.

the building. A typical longhouse held ten
families with five fire pits.

17

Another group of Eastern Woodlands

was called the Mound Builders. They

Native Americans was the Mahican.

once lived near rivers in what is now the

Their name comes from muh-he-cn-nuk,

Midwest and in the Southeast. The Mound

which means great water that is always

Builders way of life began about 2,800

moving, either flowing or ebbing. Stories

years ago. This was

passed down for many years tell about

about the same time

the Mahican crossing over the water that

as the civilization

gave them their name. This water, said

of ancient Greece.

the legend, was far in the north. There,

Like the Ancestral

two lands were nearly connected. From

Pueblo, the Mound

there the Mahican traveled east, and they

Builders were

crossed many rivers. Finally, they found

farmers, growing

a place that seemed like home. It was

corn, squash, and

the valley of the Hudson River. This old

beans. Because they were farmers, the

Mahican story closely matches the theory

Mound Builders settled in one place. They

of the Beringian land bridge route, which

raised so much food that they could trade

archaeologists have confirmed.

with other groups. They built cities, roads,

Vocabulary
Mound Builders,
n. prehistoric Native
American people
who lived in the
Mississippi River
Valley and were
known by the huge
earthen mounds
they built

and marketplaces. The cities and towns

Think Twice
What level of cooperation would be
needed for ten families to live in one
home, or longhouse?

they constructed lasted for centuries.
Though once it was a mystery, scientists
have discovered the cause of the decline
of Mound Builder civilizations. Like the
Aztecs, the people of the Mississippi Valley
were exposed to new diseases when

The Mound Builders

European explorers arrived in the 1500s.
In a very short time, the diseases swept

Just as the Ancestral Pueblo did, other

through whole communities, and many

early indigenous groups learned to live

died. Survivors of the Mound Builders

in a way that seems very mysterious

became the Native American nations

to us today. One such group of people

known today as the Creek, the Cherokee,

18

and the Choctaw. In the late 1600s, French
explorers observed the last Mound Builder

Think Twice

city in what is now Mississippi. It was ruled

Why would an abundance of food
enable the Mound Builders to trade?

by a wealthy, powerful king, but by the
early 1700s, this city, too, was gone.

Mound Builders traded with other indigenous groups.

The most prolific groups in this area were

The American Southeast

Mound Builder survivors who probably
joined other Native American groups in
this region and who would eventually

Stretching from the lower Midwest to

settle in villages and small towns. Some

the subtropics of the Gulf plains to the

of these groups became the Creek

Appalachian highlands, the American

Confederacy, located along the Mississippi

Southeast covers different types of

River. Creek communities were a lot like

geography. Indigenous tribes of this

the Mound Builder communities. Creeks

region lived in places where the growing

kept many parts of Mound Builder culture,

season was longer and the vegetation

including towns with plazas, ceremonies,

was more varied.

and games. One popular game played

19

what is now North and South Carolina,
Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and
Louisiana. Creek towns and villages had
areas for farming and for living. Cattle,
hogs, and other livestock were kept in
fenced areas. Corn and potatoes were
grown on farmland between the villages.

Think Twice
How might splitting off and creating
new communities have helped the
Creek people survive?

The Cherokee

Creek communities had towns and plazas for social
gatherings.

The Cherokee (/cher*uh*kee/) are

by the Creeks was afvcketv (pronounced

southeastern people descended from

/ah*futch*kitt*uh/), which is a stickball

the Mound Builders. Their homeland was

game similar to the Iroquois game of
lacrosse. Men used paired racquets to toss
a small ball toward a target placed atop
a tall pole, and the women threw and
caught the ball with their hands.

in what is now western North Carolina,
eastern Tennessee, and northern Georgia.
Some Cherokee still live in the area, but
sadly, most of the Cherokee and many
Seminoles were forced to move from their

Most members of the Creek Confederacy

homeland to what is now Oklahoma. Like

spoke the same language, and they held

other southeastern Native Americans,

the same religious ceremonies. When

the Cherokee lived in small communities

a town got too big, part of the group

on good farming land. They built wood-

would split off and start a new town

frame houses with walls made of woven

nearby. In this way, the Creeks spread into

vines or branches plastered with mud.

20

Sequoyah

The Seminoles

The written language of the Cherokee

Members of the Seminole

was created by a man named Sequoyah

(/seh*muh*nole/) Nation are also

(/sih*kwoi*uh/). He was born in the

descended from the Mound Builders.

1770s in Tennessee. Sequoyah became

Today, many Seminoles live in Florida and

interested in books and letters, which he

Oklahoma. Every Seminole is a member

had seen written in English. He invented a

of one of eight clans, or family groups,

set of symbols for the Cherokee language.

named Bear, Deer, Wind, Bigtown, Bird,

This allowed the Cherokee language to

Snake, Otter, and Panther. The Panther

be written and read. Sequoyah taught

clan is the largest. The Seminoles believe

many Cherokee people to write the new

in nature spirits, including animal spirits.

language. In fact, it is still used today.

The spirits guide them in terms of how
to live. Seminole children belong to their
mothers’ clans.

Each village had a central building,

control over the people. The people had

or council house, for celebrations,

a say in how they were ruled. Like other

ceremonies, and meetings. This council

North American indigenous groups,

house had seven sides, each representing

the Cherokee told many legends. These

one of the Cherokee clans. The clans were

legends explained how their world had

Bird, Paint, Deer, Wolf, Blue, Long Hair,

come into being and how people should

and Wild Potato. Each group of Cherokee

live. In the late 1700s and early 1800s,

had two chiefs: one chief ruled during

the Cherokee became the only Native

peacetime, the other during war. The

American people in the United States

chiefs helped guide the people and make

who kept written records in their

decisions, but they did not have complete own language.

21

Shared Cultural Traits and Sources of Conflict

Traditional Native American cultures valued spirituality. Native Americans relied on a Great Spirit to speak to them
through signs and symbols, even dreams and visions.

It is important for us to remember that

Religion was one area where the two

the people we now refer to as Native

groups held very different beliefs and

Americans, or indigenous peoples,

customs. The biggest religious difference

did not comprise a single group. They

had to do with gods. The Europeans

did not all have the same way of life,

embraced monotheism, which is the

traditions, or beliefs. But there were some

belief in one God. By contrast, Native

things that indigenous peoples had in

American religions tended to reflect

common that made them very different

polytheism, the belief in many gods.

from the Europeans they would later

Indeed, to this day, within the belief

encounter. Some common practices of

systems of many native religions,

the indigenous cultures were the same

Vocabulary

practices that proved to be major sources

monotheism, n. the religious belief in
one god
polytheism, n. the religious belief in
many gods

of conflict between the two groups when
they came into contact with each other.

22

everything in the natural world
possesses a spirit and is therefore
entitled to some form of worship or
adoration.
Europeans’ beliefs sprang from
Christianity, the Christian Bible and the
catechism, and the clergy, or religious
leaders, who taught them. Indigenous
societies, instead, almost always relied
on traditions and values that were
passed down orally from the elders to
everyone else.
Indigenous groups also received
inspiration from people known as
shamans. A shaman was a religious
leader who performed healing rites and
rituals. Shamans were believed to have
access to spirits that had the ability to

Shamans were religious leaders.

heal or harm.

people lived as part of their environment.
They hunted and gathered for food,

Vocabulary

medicine, clothing, and materials to build

shaman, n. a religious leader who
performs healing rites and rituals

houses. By and large, they did not hunt
for sport. They saw such an activity as

These belief systems also impacted the

wasteful and a violation of the spirit of

way the two groups saw the natural

the animals being killed.

environment. From the viewpoint of

Think Twice

Europeans, God put humankind in charge
of the earth to shape, control, and change
the environment in ways that made a
preferred way of life possible. Indigenous

23

Why might differences in religious
views have caused problems
between Europeans and Native
Americans?

saw land ownership as the basis of
personal wealth. In Europe, and later in
America, the amount of land someone
owned was one measure of how much
wealth the person had. Over time, as the
population in Europe grew, the desire or
quest for land elsewhere grew too.
As you will discover, much conflict did
ensue between the groups. Huge areas
of land were taken by settlers and, much
later, by the American government. Many
Native Americans died of diseases that
Europeans brought with them. Others
fought until they were defeated or driven
away from their homes. Ways could not be

Native Americans lived in harmony with nature.

found to “bury the hatchet” or “smoke the

Another point of difference was the way

peace pipe.” And in the end, thousands

the two groups viewed land ownership.

upon thousands of Native Americans lost

This was a foreign concept for Native

their sacred spaces, traditional hunting

Americans and was the source of just

grounds, and the land upon which their

about every conflict between the two

ancestors had lived for thousands of years.

groups. For most indigenous tribes,
the concept of ownership and private

Find Out the Facts

property was strange. They viewed the
land as something that was the giver of life
for all, not something that any one person
could own. On the other hand, Europeans

Research one Native American
group that you have read about in this
chapter.

Writers’ Corner

Think Twice

Using your research on a Native
American group, write a report
revealing the key facts you have
discovered.

How might the Native American view
of land ownership have placed them
at a disadvantage?

24

The Earliest Europeans in America Were Vikings

Viking warrior-explorers sailed across the northern Atlantic.

Quite possibly, the first Europeans to

(/bee*yar*nee/hur*yolf*sun/) was a

come to America were warrior-explorers

Norse sailor who was sailing the northern

from Scandinavia called Vikings. Vikings,

Atlantic in 986 when strong winds blew

or Norsemen, were skilled sailors and

him off his planned course to Greenland.

made good soldiers. Not every Viking

He made landfall somewhere off the

was a soldier or sailor, though. Most

coast of northeastern Canada. He may

were farmers who kept cattle and sheep.

have been the first European to lay eyes

Starting around the 800s and 900s, their

on North America. After finding his way

Scandinavian homelands began to get

back home, an excited Herjolfsson told

crowded. So some set out in search of

his people what he had seen. His stories

lands to settle on and new waters to fish.

inspired other explorers to find the same

They also hoped to find treasures they
could use to enrich themselves.

land Herjolfsson had found. One of those
who listened to Herjolfsson’s stories

The first Viking ship arrived in America

was his friend Leif Eriksson. Leif, whose

accidentally. Bjarni Herjolfsson

nickname was Leif the Lucky, was the son

25

of Erik the Red, who
was believed to be the first
European to discover Greenland.
Eriksson was a good sailor. He
followed Herjolfsson’s route
and landed in a place he called
Vinland because of the wild
vines he saw growing there.
Vinland was probably the modern
Canadian province of Nova Scotia.
The vines Eriksson saw were likely
berry bushes.
Eriksson’s expedition led the way
for others to follow, including
his brother Thorvald. As part
of another Viking expedition
some years later, a colony was
established that is believed to
have lasted roughly three years.

Find Out the Facts
Find out more about
Viking culture.

Writers’ Corner
Using your research,
write a report on
Vikings.

26

Eventually, the settlers in this small Viking colony returned to their native Scandinavia,
and it would be another four centuries before more Europeans would come to America.

27